CHANDRA SPACE TELESCOPE

A new collection of images features data from NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory. These objects have been observed in invisible light — including X-rays, infrared, and radio — by some of the most powerful telescopes. Each layer represents data that has been assigned colors that the human eye can perceive, allowing us to explore these cosmic entities. The objects in this quintet of images range both in distance and category. Vela and Kepler are the mesmerizing remains of exploded stars within our own Milky Way galaxy, the center of which can be seen in the top panorama. In NGC 1365, we see a double-barred spiral galaxy located about 60 million light-years from Earth. Farther away and on an even larger scale, ESO 137-001 shows what happens when a galaxy hurtles through space and leaves a wake behind it. Let’s take a closer look at each one. The Galactic Center is about 26,000 light-years years from Earth, but telescopes like NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory allow us to visit virtually. The center of the Milky Way contains a supermassive black hole, superheated clouds of gas, massive stars, neutron stars, and much more. By combining data from NASA’s Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (or “ix-pee” as it’s known for short), Chandra, and NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope, researchers are probing Vela, the aftermath of a star that collapsed and exploded and now sends a remarkable storm of particles and energy into space. IXPE shows the average orientation of the X-rays with respect to the jet in this image. The center of the spiral galaxy NGC 1365 contains a supermassive black hole being fed by a steady stream of material. Some of the hot gas revealed in the X-ray image from Chandra will eventually be pulled into the black hole. The Chandra image has been combined with infrared data from Webb. The Kepler supernova remnant is the remains of a white dwarf that exploded after undergoing a thermonuclear explosion. Chandra shows a powerful blast wave that ripped through space after the detonation, while infrared data from NASA’s Spitzer Space Telescope and optical light from Hubble show the debris of the destroyed star. As the galaxy moves through space at 1.5 million miles per hour, it leaves not one — but two — tails behind it. These tails trailing after ESO 137-001 are made of superheated gas that Chandra detects in X-rays. ESO’s Very Large Telescope shows light from hydrogen atoms, which have been added to the image along with optical and infrared data from Hubble. For more information, visit: https://chandra.si.edu/photo/2023/archives

Four composite images deliver dazzling views from NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory and James Webb Space Telescope of two galaxies, a nebula, and a star cluster. Each image combines Chandra’s X-rays — a form of high-energy light — with infrared data from previously released Webb images. Data from the Hubble Space Telescope and retired Spitzer Space Telescope, plus ESA’s XMM-Newton and the ESO’s New Technology Telescope is also used. While most of these wavelengths of light are invisible to the human eye, the data have been mapped to colors so we can explore these cosmic wonders and details within. The data in these images have been released to the public before, but this is the first time they have been combined in this way. The images include NGC 346, a star cluster in a nearby galaxy, the Small Magellanic Cloud, about 200,000 light-years from Earth. Webb shows plumes and arcs of gas and dust that stars and planets use as source material during their formation. The purple cloud on the left seen with Chandra is the remains of a supernova explosion from a massive star. The Chandra data also reveals young, hot, and massive stars that send powerful winds outward from their surfaces. NGC 1672 is a spiral galaxy, but one that astronomers categorize as a “barred” spiral. In regions close to their centers, the arms of barred spiral galaxies are mostly in a straight band of stars across the center that encloses the core, as opposed to other spirals that have arms that twist all the way to their core. The Chandra data reveals compact objects like neutron stars or black holes pulling material from companion stars as well as the remnants of exploded stars. Messier 16, also known as the Eagle Nebula, is a famous region of the sky often referred to as the “Pillars of Creation.” The Webb image shows the dark columns of gas and dust shrouding the few remaining fledgling stars just being formed. The Chandra sources, which look like dots, are young stars that give off copious amounts of X-rays. Messier 74 is also a spiral galaxy — like our Milky Way — that we see face-on from our vantage point on Earth. It is about 32 million light-years away. In the composite, Webb outlines gas and dust in the infrared while Chandra data spotlights high-energy activity from stars at X-ray wavelengths. Hubble optical data showcases additional stars and dust along the dust lanes. We look forward to many more new images from Chandra data and its companion telescopes both in space and on the ground as this exciting era of astronomy continues. More at: https://chandra.si.edu/photo/2023/chandrawebb2/

A distant — and lonely — galaxy appears to have pulled in and assimilated all of its former companion galaxies. This result made with NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory and the International Gemini Observatory may push the limits for how quickly astronomers expect galaxies to grow in the early universe. The unexpectedly solo galaxy is located about 9.2 billion light-years from Earth and contains a quasar, a supermassive black hole pulling in gas at the center of the galaxy and driving powerful jets of matter seen in radio waves. The environment of this galaxy, known as 3C297, appears to have the key features of a galaxy cluster, enormous structures that usually contain hundreds or even thousands of galaxies. Yet 3C297 stands alone. A team of researchers expected to see at least a dozen galaxies within 3C297, yet they found only one. Accurate distance measurements from Gemini data revealed that none of the 19 galaxies that appear close to 3C297 in the optical image are actually at the same distance as the lonely galaxy. The question is, what happened to all of these galaxies in 3C297? The team thinks the gravitational pull of the one large galaxy combined with interactions between the galaxies was too strong, and they merged with the large galaxy. For these galaxies, apparently resistance was futile. The researchers think 3C297 is no longer a galaxy cluster, but a “fossil group.” This is the end stage of a galaxy pulling in and merging with several other galaxies. While many other fossil groups have been detected before, this one is particularly distant, at 9.2 billion light-years away. (The previous record holders for fossil groups were at distances of 4.9 and 7.9 billion light-years.) It may be challenging to explain how the Universe can create this system only 4.6 billion years after the Big Bang. This result doesn’t break the current ideas of cosmology, but it begins to push the limits on how quickly both galaxies and galaxy clusters must have formed. More at: https://chandra.si.edu/photo/2023/3c297/

Astronomers have discovered the first evidence for giant black holes in dwarf galaxies on a collision course. This result from NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory has important ramifications for understanding how the first wave of black holes and galaxies grew in the early universe. Collisions between the pairs of dwarf galaxies have pulled gas towards the giant black holes they each contain, causing the black holes to grow. Eventually the likely collision of the black holes will cause them to merge into much larger black holes. The pairs of galaxies will also merge into one. Scientists think the universe was awash with small galaxies, known as “dwarf galaxies,” several hundred million years after the Big Bang. Most merged with others in the crowded, smaller volume of the early universe, setting in motion the building of larger and larger galaxies now seen around the local universe. Dwarf galaxies by definition contain stars with a total mass less than about 3 billion times that of the Sun, compared to a total mass of about 60 billion Suns estimated for the Milky Way. The earliest dwarf galaxies are impossible to observe with current technology because they are extraordinarily faint at their large distances. Astronomers have been able to observe two in the process of merging at much closer distances to Earth, but without signs of black holes in both galaxies. Astronomers have found many examples of black holes on collision courses in large galaxies that are relatively close by, but searches for them in dwarf galaxies are much more challenging and until now had failed. The new study overcame these challenges by implementing a systematic survey of deep Chandra X-ray observations and comparing them with infrared data from NASA’s Wide Infrared Survey Explorer, or WISE, telescope and optical data from the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope. Using this technique, a group of researchers identified two pairs of merging dwarf galaxies in separate galaxy clusters. The first is Abell 133, which is located about 760 million light-years away. The second is the galaxy cluster Abell 1758S, which is about 3.2 billion light-years from Earth. Astronomers will use these systems as analogs for ones in the early universe, so they can drill down into questions about the first galaxies, their black holes, and star formation the collisions caused many billions of years ago. More at: https://chandra.si.edu/photo/2023/bh_pairs/

Astronomers have made a record-breaking measurement of a black hole's spin, one of two fundamental properties of black holes. NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory shows this black hole is spinning slower than most of its smaller cousins. This is the most massive black hole with an accurate spin measurement and gives hints about how some of the Universe's biggest black holes grow. Supermassive black holes contain millions or even billions of times more mass than the Sun. Astronomers think that nearly every large galaxy has a supermassive black hole at their center. While the existence of supermassive black holes is not in dispute, scientists are still working to understand how they grow and evolve. One critical piece of information is how fast the black holes are spinning. Every black hole can be defined by just two numbers: its spin and its mass. While that sounds fairly simple, figuring those values out for most black holes has proved to be incredibly difficult. For this result, researchers observed X-rays that bounced off a disk of material swirling around the black hole in a quasar known as H1821+643. Located in a cluster of galaxies about 3.4 billion light-years from Earth, H1821+643 contains an actively growing black hole containing between about three and 30 billion solar masses, making it one of the most massive known. By contrast the supermassive black hole in the center of our galaxy weighs about four million suns. The strong gravitational forces near the black hole alter the intensity of X-rays at different energies. The larger the alteration the closer the inner edge of the disk must be to the point of no return of the black hole, known as the event horizon. Because a spinning black hole drags space around with it and allows matter to orbit closer to it than is possible for a non-spinning one, the X-ray data can show how fast the black hole is spinning. The scientists found that the black hole in H1821+643 is spinning about half as quickly as most black holes weighing between about a million and ten million suns. The million-dollar question is: why? The answer may lie in how these supermassive black holes grow and evolve. This relatively slow spin supports the idea that the most massive black holes like H1821+643 undergo most of their growth by merging with other black holes, or by gas being pulled inwards in random directions when their large disks are disrupted. While there is much more work to be done, this result signifies an exciting step forward in scientists' attempt to uncover how the most massive black holes in the universe grow. More at: https://chandra.si.edu/photo/2022/h1821

A young pulsar is blazing through the Milky Way at a speed of over a million miles per hour. This stellar speedster, witnessed by NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory, is one of the fastest objects of its kind ever seen. This result teaches astronomers more about how some of the bigger stars end their lives. Pulsars are rapidly spinning neutron stars that are formed when some massive stars run out of fuel, collapse and explode. This pulsar is racing through the remains of the supernova explosion that created it, called G292.0+1.8, located about 20,000 light-years from Earth. To detect the motion of the pulsar in X-rays, astronomers needed the sharp vision that only Chandra has. Because the pulsar is so distant, it took the equivalent of resolving the width of a quarter about 15 miles away to see this motion. To make this discovery, the researchers compared Chandra images of G292.0+1.8 taken in 2006 and 2016. From the change in position of the pulsar over the 10-year span, they calculated it is moving at least 1.4 million miles per hour from the center of the supernova remnant to the lower left. This speed is about 30% higher than a previous estimate of the pulsar's speed that was based on an indirect method, by measuring how far the pulsar is from the center of the explosion. The newly determined speed of the pulsar indicates that G292.0+1.8 and its pulsar may be significantly younger than astronomers previously thought. The astronomers estimate that G292.0+1.8 would have exploded about 2,000 years ago as seen from Earth, rather than 3,000 years ago as previously calculated. Several civilizations around the globe were recording supernova explosions at that time, opening up the possibility that G292.0+1.8 was directly observed. However, this event would have only been visible from the southern hemisphere, and so far there have been no confirmed supernova sightings from that half of the globe in previous millennia. In addition to learning more about the age of G292.0+1.8, the research team also examined how the supernova gave the pulsar its powerful kick. This latest result supports the explanation that asymmetry in the explosion debris gave the pulsar its kick. And this lopsided explosion imparted the pulsar with about 200 million times more energy than Earth's motion around the Sun. The researchers were able to make this remarkable measurement because they combined Chandra's high-resolution images with a careful technique of checking the coordinates of the pulsar and other X-ray sources by using precise positions from the Gaia satellite. It's yet another example of how using data from more than one telescope makes for more powerful science. More at: More at: https://chandra.si.edu/photo/2022/g292/

Humanity has long sought to learn about the Milky Way, our home galaxy. Even after the advent of optical telescopes, the Milky Way's center, some 26,000 light years from Earth, remained mysterious, because gas and dust block most visible light along our line of sight. Fortunately, X-ray telescopes, like NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory, can detect higher-energy radiation that penetrates this veil of galactic debris. Since Chandra was launched into space in 1999, it has observed the center of the Milky Way many times. And what it has found is no less than revolutionary. A supermassive black hole weighing about 4 million times the mass of our Sun sits at the center of our Galaxy. Astronomers call this black hole “Sagittarius A*” or “Saj A-star” for short. Sgr A* sits in a complex and dynamic environment surrounded by stars, hot gas, supernova remnants and more. Professor Daryl Haggard of McGill University in Montreal, Canada, has been one of the leading researchers in using Chandra to learn about the heart of our Milky Way. For more information, visit: https://chandra.si.edu/blackhole/ and https://chandra.si.edu/photo/2022/sgra/

NASA Unleashes Space Data Across the Senses – SXSW Online 2021 (Tuesday, March 16, 2021, 11:15am - 12:10pm) Speakers: Kimberly Arcand, Visualization Scientist & Emerging Technology Lead, NASAs Chandra X-ray Observatory/Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory Matt Russo, Dir; Lecturer, SYSTEM Sounds; University of Toronto Garry Foran, Phd Candidate in Astrophysics, Centre for Astrophysics and Supercomputing Swinburne University of Technology Alexander Stewart, Student, Brown University Data of objects from space have been liberated from the 2D imagery they have long lived inside. NASA experts now deliver these data so that people can listen, feel, and (virtually) move through the cosmos via holograms and other forms of extended reality. These data taken from telescopes in space – often in light invisible to the human eye – can be transformed into many different modes of experience, providing access to some of space’s most interesting and mysterious objects, and making it more inclusive across platforms used for education, entertainment and research. From listening to sounds around the giant black hole at the Milky Way’s center to walking through the debris of an exploded star in VR, our Universe is universally designed and revealed anew

Staff at the Chandra Operations Control Center help ensure the health and safety of the Chandra X-Ray Observatory, a spacecraft that orbits above the Earth's atmosphere to detect X-ray emission from very hot regions of the universe. The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory oversees the Chandra X-ray Observatory's research and flight operations.

On July 23, 1999, Space Shuttle Columbia launched into space. Commander Eileen M. Collins describes the primary mission of STS-93: deploying the Chandra X-Ray Observatory. The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory oversees the Chandra X-ray Observatory's research and flight operations.

A new trio of examples of a data sonification project from NASA missions provides a novel way to enjoy an arrangement of cosmic objects. Data sonification translates information collected by various NASA missions — including the Chandra X-ray Observatory, Hubble Space Telescope, and Spitzer Space Telescope — into sounds. This image of the Bullet Cluster provided the first direct proof of dark matter, the mysterious unseen substance that makes up the vast majority of matter in the Universe. X-rays from Chandra show where the hot gas in two merging galaxy clusters has been wrenched away from dark matter, seen through a process known as "gravitational lensing" in data from Hubble and ground-based telescopes. In converting this into sound, each layer of data was limited to a specific frequency range, and different pitches were assigned to produce a range of tones. In the sonification of the Crab Nebula, each wavelength of light has been paired with a different family of instruments. Telescopes have captured detailed data of the quickly spinning neutron star that formed when a massive star collapsed. Brass instruments play the X-rays from Chandra, optical light data from Hubble are heard in the strings, and infrared data from Spitzer are audible as woodwinds. In each case, light received towards the top of the image is played as higher pitched notes and brighter light is played louder. Data sonification also delivers a new take on Supernova 1987A, one of the brightest supernova explosions in centuries. This time lapse depicts a series of Chandra and Hubble observations taken between 1999 and 2013 as a dense ring of gas begins to glow brighter when a shockwave from the supernova moves outward. As the focus sweeps around the image, the data are translated into the sound of a crystal singing bowl, with brighter light being heard as higher and louder notes. Hubble data occupy the higher range of notes, while X-rays from Chandra take the lower. This allows both wavelengths of light to be heard simultaneously.

In the year 1054 AD, Chinese sky watchers witnessed the sudden appearance of a "new star" in the heavens, which they recorded as six times brighter than Venus, making it the brightest observed stellar event in recorded history. This "guest star," as they described it, was so bright that people saw it in the sky during the day for almost a month. Native Americans also recorded its mysterious appearance in petroglyphs. Observing the nebula with the largest telescope of the time, Lord Rosse in 1844 named the object the "Crab" because of its tentacle-like structure. But it wasn't until the 1900s that astronomers realized the nebula was the surviving relic of the 1054 supernova, the explosion of a massive star. Now, astronomers and visualization specialists have combined the visible, infrared, and X-ray vision of NASA's Great Observatories to create a three-dimensional representation of the dynamic Crab Nebula. Certain structures and processes, driven by the pulsar engine at the heart of the nebula, are best seen at particular wavelengths. The multiwavelength computer graphics visualization is based on images from the Chandra X-ray Observatory and the Hubble and Spitzer space telescopes. The new video dissects the intricate nested structure that makes up this stellar corpse, giving viewers a better understanding of the extreme and complex physical processes powering the nebula. The powerhouse "engine" energizing the entire system is a pulsar, a rapidly spinning neutron star, the super-dense crushed core of the exploded star. The tiny dynamo is blasting out blistering pulses of radiation towards us 30 times a second with unbelievable clockwork precision. The visualization is one of a new generation of products and experiences being developed by the NASA's Universe of Learning program. It helps illustrate the power of what astronomers call “multiwavelength” astronomy where different types of light are combined to get a more complete understanding of the Universe and objects within it.

Using NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory, astronomers have seen that the famous giant black hole in Messier 87, or M87, is propelling particles at speeds greater than 99% of the speed of light. The Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration released the first image of a black hole with observations of Messier 87 last April, making it arguably the Universe's most famous black hole. Meanwhile, astronomers have studied a jet of high energy particles — powered by the black hole — blasting out of the center of M87 in radio, optical, and X-ray light for many years. Over its two decades of operations, Chandra has observed M87 many times. And now, researchers used Chandra's data to determine that sections of the jet in M87 are moving at nearly the speed of light. While astronomers have observed features in the M87 jet blasting away from its black hole this quickly at radio and optical wavelengths for many years, this provides the strongest evidence yet that actual particles are travelling this fast. When matter gets close enough to a black hole, it enters into a swirling pattern called an accretion disk. Some material from the inner part of the accretion disk falls onto the black hole and some of it is redirected away from the black hole in the form of narrow beams, or jets, of material along magnetic field lines. Because the material can fall onto the black hole erratically, the jets are made of clumps or knots that can sometimes be identified with Chandra and other telescopes. A team of astronomers recently used Chandra observations from 2012 and 2017 to track the motion of two X-ray knots located within the jet about 900 and 2,500 light years away from the black hole. The X-ray data show motion with apparent speeds of 6.3 times the speed of light for the X-ray knot closer to the black hole and 2.4 times the speed of light for the other. While this sounds like it breaks the laws of physics, it's actually an illusion that occurs when objects are traveling close to the speed of light along a direction that is close to our line of sight. The jet travels almost as quickly towards us as the light it generates, giving the illusion that the jet's motion is much more rapid than the speed of light. In the case of M87, the jet is pointing close to our direction, resulting in these exotic apparent speeds. The Chandra data are an excellent complement to what the Event Horizon Telescope, or EHT, found. The jet Chandra sees is five hundred thousand times larger in size than the ring imaged by the EHT. Another difference is that the EHT observed M87 over six days in April 2017, giving a recent snapshot of the black hole. The Chandra observations investigate ejected material within the jet that was launched from the black hole hundreds and thousands of years earlier. Astronomers are looking forward to seeing what else these telescopes can learn about black holes in the years to come.

Astronomers have uncovered a black hole that may have sparked the birth of stars over a phenomenal distance of more than a million light years and across multiple galaxies. If confirmed, this discovery, made with NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory and other telescopes, would represent the widest reach ever seen for a black hole acting as a stellar kick-starter. The supermassive black hole is located in the center of a galaxy about 9.9 billion light years from Earth. This galaxy has at least seven neighboring galaxies, according to two optical light telescopes in Chile and Arizona. Previously, astronomers had discovered a jet from this black hole in radio waves with the Very Large Array. Using Chandra, researchers then detected a bright X-ray source around the black hole as well as a diffuse cloud of X-rays at one end of the jet. Astronomers think this thin cloud of X-rays probably represents a bubble in the galaxy's hot gas created by the jet. As this bubble expanded, it likely created a shock wave that triggered star formation as it moved. Researchers estimate from their data that four neighboring galaxies, each about 400,000 light years away from the end of the black hole's jet, have dramatically increased rates of star formation. This result represents a relatively rare occurrence where a black hole is actually boosting star formation rather than suppressing it. On top to that, this is the farthest that astronomers have ever seen this effect of so-called positive feedback extend. Scientists will continue to study objects similar to this one in the hopes of trying to determine if this phenomenon is common — or not — in the formation of groups and clusters of galaxies.

All Space Considered is Griffith Observatory’s live science program that is free and open to the public, held the first Friday of every month. Subscribe now for more All Space Considered clips: https://www.youtube.com/subscription_center?add_user=griffithobservatory Watch All Space Considered videos: https://www.youtube.com/griffithobservatory Learn more about All Space Considered on our official site: http://griffithobservatory.org/asc/all_space.html Follow All Space Considered on SOCIAL MEDIA: Twitter: https://twitter.com/allspacecnsdrd Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/AllSpaceConsidered/ Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/allspaceconsidered/ -Disclaimer- WE DO NOT OWN THE RIGHTS TO THE, VIDEOS, MUSICAL MATERIAL OR PICTURES PRESENT THAT WERE NOT CREATED DIRECTLY BY GRIFFITH OBSERVATORY OR ITS AFFILIATES, ALL CREDIT FOR THIS MATERIAL GOES TO THE ORIGINAL ARTISTS, CREATORS AND COMPOSERS. Fair Use: "Copyright Disclaimer Under Section 107 of the Copyright Act 1976, allowance is made for "fair use" for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyright statute that might otherwise be infringing. Non-profit, educational or personal use tips the balance in favor of fair use."

All Space Considered is Griffith Observatory’s live science program that is free and open to the public, held the first Friday of every month. Subscribe now for more All Space Considered clips: https://www.youtube.com/subscription_center?add_user=griffithobservatory Watch All Space Considered videos: https://www.youtube.com/griffithobservatory Learn more about All Space Considered on our official site: http://griffithobservatory.org/asc/all_space.html Follow All Space Considered on SOCIAL MEDIA: Twitter: https://twitter.com/allspacecnsdrd Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/AllSpaceConsidered/ Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/allspaceconsidered/ -Disclaimer- WE DO NOT OWN THE RIGHTS TO THE, VIDEOS, MUSICAL MATERIAL OR PICTURES PRESENT THAT WERE NOT CREATED DIRECTLY BY GRIFFITH OBSERVATORY OR ITS AFFILIATES, ALL CREDIT FOR THIS MATERIAL GOES TO THE ORIGINAL ARTISTS, CREATORS AND COMPOSERS. Fair Use: "Copyright Disclaimer Under Section 107 of the Copyright Act 1976, allowance is made for "fair use" for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyright statute that might otherwise be infringing. Non-profit, educational or personal use tips the balance in favor of fair use."

All Space Considered is Griffith Observatory’s live science program that is free and open to the public, held the first Friday of every month. Subscribe now for more All Space Considered clips: https://www.youtube.com/subscription_center?add_user=griffithobservatory Watch All Space Considered videos: https://www.youtube.com/griffithobservatory Learn more about All Space Considered on our official site: http://griffithobservatory.org/asc/all_space.html Follow All Space Considered on SOCIAL MEDIA: Twitter: https://twitter.com/allspacecnsdrd Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/AllSpaceConsidered/ Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/allspaceconsidered/ -Disclaimer- WE DO NOT OWN THE RIGHTS TO THE, VIDEOS, MUSICAL MATERIAL OR PICTURES PRESENT THAT WERE NOT CREATED DIRECTLY BY GRIFFITH OBSERVATORY OR ITS AFFILIATES, ALL CREDIT FOR THIS MATERIAL GOES TO THE ORIGINAL ARTISTS, CREATORS AND COMPOSERS. Fair Use: "Copyright Disclaimer Under Section 107 of the Copyright Act 1976, allowance is made for "fair use" for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyright statute that might otherwise be infringing. Non-profit, educational or personal use tips the balance in favor of fair use."

All Space Considered is Griffith Observatory’s live science program that is free and open to the public, held the first Friday of every month. Subscribe now for more All Space Considered clips: https://www.youtube.com/subscription_center?add_user=griffithobservatory Watch All Space Considered videos: https://www.youtube.com/griffithobservatory Learn more about All Space Considered on our official site: http://griffithobservatory.org/asc/all_space.html Follow All Space Considered on SOCIAL MEDIA: Twitter: https://twitter.com/allspacecnsdrd Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/AllSpaceConsidered/ Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/allspaceconsidered/ -Disclaimer- WE DO NOT OWN THE RIGHTS TO THE, VIDEOS, MUSICAL MATERIAL OR PICTURES PRESENT THAT WERE NOT CREATED DIRECTLY BY GRIFFITH OBSERVATORY OR ITS AFFILIATES, ALL CREDIT FOR THIS MATERIAL GOES TO THE ORIGINAL ARTISTS, CREATORS AND COMPOSERS. Fair Use: "Copyright Disclaimer Under Section 107 of the Copyright Act 1976, allowance is made for "fair use" for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyright statute that might otherwise be infringing. Non-profit, educational or personal use tips the balance in favor of fair use."

All Space Considered is Griffith Observatory’s live science program that is free and open to the public, held the first Friday of every month. Subscribe now for more All Space Considered clips: https://www.youtube.com/subscription_center?add_user=griffithobservatory Watch All Space Considered videos: https://www.youtube.com/griffithobservatory Learn more about All Space Considered on our official site: http://griffithobservatory.org/asc/all_space.html Follow All Space Considered on SOCIAL MEDIA: Twitter: https://twitter.com/allspacecnsdrd Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/AllSpaceConsidered/ Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/allspaceconsidered/ -Disclaimer- WE DO NOT OWN THE RIGHTS TO THE, VIDEOS, MUSICAL MATERIAL OR PICTURES PRESENT THAT WERE NOT CREATED DIRECTLY BY GRIFFITH OBSERVATORY OR ITS AFFILIATES, ALL CREDIT FOR THIS MATERIAL GOES TO THE ORIGINAL ARTISTS, CREATORS AND COMPOSERS. Fair Use: "Copyright Disclaimer Under Section 107 of the Copyright Act 1976, allowance is made for "fair use" for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyright statute that might otherwise be infringing. Non-profit, educational or personal use tips the balance in favor of fair use."

All Space Considered is Griffith Observatory’s live science program that is free and open to the public, held the first Friday of every month. Subscribe now for more All Space Considered clips: https://www.youtube.com/subscription_center?add_user=griffithobservatory Watch All Space Considered videos: https://www.youtube.com/griffithobservatory Learn more about All Space Considered on our official site: http://griffithobservatory.org/asc/all_space.html Follow All Space Considered on SOCIAL MEDIA: Twitter: https://twitter.com/allspacecnsdrd Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/AllSpaceConsidered/ Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/allspaceconsidered/ -Disclaimer- WE DO NOT OWN THE RIGHTS TO THE, VIDEOS, MUSICAL MATERIAL OR PICTURES PRESENT THAT WERE NOT CREATED DIRECTLY BY GRIFFITH OBSERVATORY OR ITS AFFILIATES, ALL CREDIT FOR THIS MATERIAL GOES TO THE ORIGINAL ARTISTS, CREATORS AND COMPOSERS. Fair Use: "Copyright Disclaimer Under Section 107 of the Copyright Act 1976, allowance is made for "fair use" for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship, and research. Fair use is a use permitted by copyright statute that might otherwise be infringing. Non-profit, educational or personal use tips the balance in favor of fair use."