NEUTRON STARS

The spectacular merger of two neutron stars that generated gravitational waves announced last fall likely did something else: birthed a black hole. This newly spawned black hole would be the lowest mass black hole ever found. A new study analyzed data from NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory taken in the days, weeks, and months after the detection of gravitational waves by the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory, or LIGO, and gamma rays by NASA's Fermi mission on August 17, 2017. While nearly every telescope at professional astronomers' disposal observed this source, known officially as GW170817, X-rays from Chandra are critical for understanding what happened after the two neutron stars collided. From the LIGO data astronomers have a good estimate that the mass of the object resulting from the neutron star merger is about 2.7 times the mass of the Sun. This puts it on a tightrope of identity, implying it is either the most massive neutron star ever found or the lowest mass black hole ever found. The previous record holders for the latter are no less than about four or five times the Sun's mass. The Chandra observations are telling, not only for what they revealed, but also for what they did not. If the neutron stars merged and formed a heavier neutron star, then astronomers would expect it to spin rapidly and generate a very strong magnetic field. This, in turn, would have created an expanding bubble of high-energy particles that would result in bright X-ray emission. Instead, the Chandra data show levels of X-rays that are a factor of a few to several hundred times lower than expected for a rapidly spinning, merged neutron star and the associated bubble of high-energy particles, implying a black hole likely formed instead.

Tracking the space station’s next crew, a distant and lonely neutron star, and taking the bite out of some very dangerous bugs – a few of the stories to tell you about – This Week at NASA! This video is available for download from NASA's Image and Video Library: https://images.nasa.gov/details-NHQ_2018_0601_Tracking%20the%20Space%20Station%E2%80%99s%20Next%20Crew%20on%20This%20Week%[email protected]%20%E2%80%93%20June%201,%202018.html

Neutron stars are the ultra dense cores of massive stars that collapse and undergo a supernova explosion. This neutron star is located within the remains of a supernova — known as 1E 0102.2-7219 (E0102 for short) — in the Small Magellanic Cloud, located 200,000 light years from Earth. E0102's neutron star is different from most others because it has both a low magnetic field and does not have a star in orbit around it. Its remnant is also unusual because it contains high levels of oxygen like two other well-known supernova remnants, Cassiopeia A and Puppis A. These oxygen-rich supernova remnants are important for understanding how massive stars fuse lighter elements into heavier ones before they explode. Future observations of E0102 at X-ray, optical, and radio wavelengths should help astronomers understand the origin of this lonely neutron star.

A distant and lonely neutron star has been discovered outside the Milky Way galaxy for the first time. Neutron stars are the ultra-dense cores of massive stars that collapse and undergo a supernova explosion. 1E 0102.2-7219 is a supernova remnant, the stellar debris field left behind after the giant star exploded. Data from NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory and other telescopes points to a celestial bull's eye where the neutron star was found. Unlike many other neutron stars, this one has a very low magnetic field and no stellar companion. Astronomers will continue to observe this object at X-ray, radio, and visible light wavelengths to learn more about this cosmic oddity.

The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope (reddish background image/supernova remnant 1E 0102.2-7219 in green), the MUSE instrument on ESO’s Very Large Telescope (red ring with a dark center) and the NASA Chandra X-Ray Observatory (blue and purple images) were used to create this a new composite image. “The blue spot at the centre of the red ring is an isolated neutron star with a weak magnetic field,” according to the European Southern Observatory (ESO). -- Full Story: https://www.space.com/40241-neutron-star-colorful-galaxy-clouds-discovery.html Credit: ESO

Neutron stars are some of the strangest things in the universe, but are they the source of the mysterious Fast Radio Bursts? Or is it aliens? Spoilers: probably not aliens. For special, curated artifacts of this universe, check out https://scishowfinds.com/ ---------- Support SciShow by becoming a patron on Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/scishow ---------- Dooblydoo thanks go to the following Patreon supporters: Jerry Perez, Lazarus G, Kelly Landrum Jones, Sam Lutfi, Kevin Knupp, Nicholas Smith, D.A. Noe, alexander wadsworth, سلطان الخليفي, Piya Shedden, KatieMarie Magnone, Scott Satovsky Jr, Charles Southerland, Bader AlGhamdi, James Harshaw, Patrick D. Ashmore, Candy, Tim Curwick, charles george, Saul, Mark Terrio-Cameron, Viraansh Bhanushali, Kevin Bealer, Philippe von Bergen, Chris Peters, Justin Lentz ---------- Like SciShow? Want to help support us, and also get things to put on your walls, cover your torso and hold your liquids? Check out our awesome products over at DFTBA Records: http://dftba.com/scishow ---------- Looking for SciShow elsewhere on the internet? Facebook: http://www.facebook.com/scishow Twitter: http://www.twitter.com/scishow Tumblr: http://scishow.tumblr.com Instagram: http://instagram.com/thescishow ---------- Sources: https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/abs/2014/02/aa21996-13/aa21996-13.html http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1086/311674 https://arstechnica.com/science/2013/07/possible-explanation-for-radio-bursts-meet-the-blitzar/ https://arstechnica.com/science/2013/12/neutrinos-give-neutron-stars-a-chill/ https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/are-fast-radio-bursts-alien-spacecraft-its-unlikely-possible-180962493/ https://www.physicsoftheuniverse.com/topics_blackholes_blackholes.html https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/objects/pulsars1.html.old https://van.physics.illinois.edu/qa/listing.php?id=1081 http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/N/Neutron+Star http://science.sciencemag.org/content/311/5769/1901 https://www.space.com/32661-pulsars.html https://medium.com/starts-with-a-bang/how-are-neutron-stars-magnetic-16273b350b10 http://www.astronomynotes.com/evolutn/s12.htm https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200602/history.cfm http://science.sciencemag.org/content/341/6141/53 https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/astronomers-are-getting-closer-understanding-mysterious-fast-radio-bursts-space-180967807/ https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/science/what-are-fast-radio-bursts https://www.cnn.com/2018/01/10/world/repeating-fast-radio-burst-frb121102/index.html https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-brilliant-flash-then-nothing-new-fast-radio-bursts-mystify-astronomers/ https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22630153-600-is-this-et-mystery-of-strange-radio-bursts-from-space/ https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-are-fast-radio-bursts/ ----------- Images: https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/20267 https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/12605 https://www.spacetelescope.org/images/heic1614a/ https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2017/nasa-continues-to-study-pulsars-50-years-after-their-chance-discovery

Michell Thaller, the Assistant Director of Science Communication at NASA, wanted to talk to us about a heavy subject matter. Specifically, super-dense neutron stars that are so dense that they're only the size of New York City but carry the weight of the sun. And when they circle each other in orbit for long enough, they collide with enough force to send ripples in both space and time. Those ripples alone are strong enough to alter the course of light. In fact, just a few years ago a rare astronomical event occurred where you'd have seen a star "blink" for a few minutes on and off before disappearing for good. Scientists are able to detect these gravitational ripples thanks to a LIGO, or a Laser Interferometric Gravitational-Wave Observatory, which measures the refraction of light based on gravity waves. Oh, and one more thing: Albert Einstein correctly deduced that this phenomenon years before it was ever recorded. Read more at BigThink.com: http://bigthink.com/videos/michelle-thaller-amazing-astronomy-how-neutron-stars-create-ripples-in-space-time Follow Big Think here: YouTube: http://goo.gl/CPTsV5 Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/BigThinkdotcom Twitter: https://twitter.com/bigthink A few decades ago we actually saw explosions in the sky somewhere out in space that we really didn’t understand at all. They gave intense bursts to something called gamma rays. And gamma rays are the highest energy kind of light that is possible. Now you probably heard of, you know, ultraviolet rays from the sun, they give you sunburn. And then there are things like x-rays. Gamma rays are even more energetic and more dangerous to us than that. But gamma rays are only created in the universe by things that are naturally in the billions of degrees. And we saw these little gamma ray pops going off in space. At first we wondered well are they nearby? Could they be in our own galaxy or are they very far away? We really didn’t know. And a few decades ago we actually realized that these gamma-ray bursts were coming from very, very distant galaxies. Galaxies that in most cases were billions of light-years away. A light-year is about six trillion miles, the distance that light travels in one year. So billions of light-years away. And so something was creating a lot of gamma rays because they were bright enough to measure from that distance. And incredibly some of these explosions were so intense – there was one I believe it was in 2007 that NASA observed. There was a little flash of visible light that came with the gamma rays and it was actually visible with the naked eye for a couple of minutes. If you were actually in the southern hemisphere on that night you would have seen a little star turn on and off for a couple of minutes and then it would have been gone. And that explosion happened about seven billion light-years away. Something blew up seven billion years ago on almost the other side of the observable universe and it was bright enough to see with the unaided eye. We had discovered something unbelievable. What could possibly be that bright? What could possibly be that violent? That little explosion for a few minutes outshone the rest of the observable universe. Just one thing. So we really didn’t know what could possibly create that much energy. And the theoretical physicists got to work and they started just kind of guessing. I mean what could explode that could make that much energy? And it turns out that if you have these things called neutron stars. Neutron stars are the leftover compressed cores of dead stars. They are amazing monsters. They’re about ten miles across and they have a density that if you had about a teaspoonful of the material that that would be about as much as the mass as Mount Everest crushed into a teaspoonful. They’re amazing things and we observe hundreds, thousands of these things in space. And so people sort of theorize that if two of these things spiral together and collided you would actually be able to get that much energy out. It seemed unlikely but, you know, maybe that does happen sometime in the universe, the two of these things collide. Now Einstein came up with this wonderful idea that space and time is almost kind of like a fabric that connects everything in the universe. And what gravity is is gravity is kind of a pulling and a stretching on that fabric. And if you have two really massive things moving around each other very fast before they collide.

Jan. 24, 2018 Dr. Eliot Quataert (University of California, Berkeley) Recently one third of the world's astronomers became involved in observing a distant and violent event, when two neutron stars collided and exploded. This represented the first time in history that a cosmic event was observed with both gravity waves and light -- the birth of "multi-messenger astronomy." Dr. Quataert gives a non-technical history of how we are now able to find gravity waves, what happens during such a merger, and why we now believe that much of the gold, platinum, uranium and other heavy elements in the universe is assembled in such mergers.

Stream on demand from www.bitesz.com (mobile friendly). *Setting a size limit on neutron stars A new study claims super-dense stellar corpses known as neutron stars couldn’t get much bigger than twice the mass of the Sun. The findings solve a forty year old mystery that’s baffled scientists ever since neutron stars were first discovered. *New clues about the recipe for making stars Astronomers have shed fresh light on the importance of hydrogen atoms in the birth of new stars. Only hydrogen molecules are thought to directly fuel star formation. But new research shows there are more hydrogen atoms than molecules even in young galaxies that are making a lot of new stars. *Midwest Meteor The citizenry of the American mid-west have been treated to an unexpected celestial spectacular with the evening skies lit up by a bright meteor and sonic boom. People in the states of Ohio and Michigan and across the border in Ontario Canada witnessed the event around 8’0 clock local time. *No link between earthquakes and the full Moon A new study has provided more evidence to dispel an enduring myth that large earthquakes tend to happen during certain phases of the Moon or at certain times during the year. The findings confirm that this bit of earthquake lore is incorrect. *Titan has a sea level just like Earth A new study has confirmed that just like Earth – Saturn’s moon Titan has a sea level. The discovery adds to a growing list of similarities between Earth has this hostile alien world. *The Science Report 2017 confirmed as one of the three warmest years on record. Atmospheric CO2 levels pass a record 410 parts per million New blood test capable of detecting eight of the most common cancers. The war in Syria has entered new phase with Russian troops coming under attack from armed drones. Finding what crops grow best in the soils of Mars. Sneezing hard enough to punch a hole in your throat. Alex on tech wraps up CES For enhanced Show Notes including photos to accompany this episode, visit: http://www.bitesz.com/spacetimeshownotes Subscribe, rate and review SpaceTime at all good podcasting apps…including Apple Podcasts (formerly iTunes), audioBoom, Stitcher, PocketCasts, Podbean, Radio Public, Tunein Radio, google play, Spreaker etc RSS feed: https://audioboom.com/channels/4642443.rss Would you prefer to have access to the special commercial free version of SpaceTime? Help support the show, subscribe at Patreon....and share in the rewards. Details at www.patreon.com/spacetimewithstuartgary Help support SpaceTime : The SpaceTime with Stuart Gary merchandise shop. Get your T-Shirts, Coffee Cups, badges, tote bag + more and help support the show. Check out the range: http://www.cafepress.com/spacetime Thank you. Plus: As a part of the SpaceTime family, you can get a free audio book of your choice, plus 30 days free access from audible.com. Just visit www.audibletrial.com/spacetime or click on the banner link at www.spacetimewithstuartgary.com Email: [email protected] Join our mailing list at http://www.bitesz.com/join-our-mailing-list

A few weeks ago we discussed the possibility of LIGO having detected two neutron stars colliding, which would have developed what's known as an optical counterpart. It was determined that we were detecting the final seconds of two neutron stars orbiting around each other just before they collided. === CONTINUE THE CONVERSATION === Twitter.com/TMRO Facebook.com/TMROTV YouTube.com/TMRO Reddit.com/r/tmro Twitch.tv/TMRO TMRO.tv === OUR REAL-TIME DISCORD CHANNEL === All of the TMRO Shows are created and maintained in our Discord channel. Escape Velocity Patrons have access to a special room, but we also have free #general rooms that anyone can participate in. Join in for free at https://discord.gg/9NkkFWD === TMRO IS CROWD FUNDED === TMRO:Space is a crowd funded show. If you like this episode consider contributing to help us to continue to improve. Head over to http://www.patreon.com/tmro for information plus our all new goals and reward levels

In a discovery revealed Oct. 23, astronomers recorded a neutron star collision for the first time in August and it confirmed their theory about where heavy metals originate.

UC Berkeley theoretical astrophysicist Daniel Kasen describes how the neutron star collision was discovered and what its debris is comprised of. --- Full story: https://www.space.com/38493-gravitational-waves-neutron-star-gold.html Credit: Video by Roxanne Makasdjian and Stephen McNally Music: "Wonder Cycle" by Chris Zabriskie

It's story time at the Cool Worlds Lab as we recount the recent amazing tale of GW 170817. A tale of two cosmic siblings who lived, died and then finally merged together to create one of the spectacular astronomy discoveries of all time. Featuring massive stars, supernovae explosions, colliding dead stars and even dinosaurs (!) - sit down, relax and enjoy the tale of GW 170817... ::More about this Video:: ► M. R. Drout et al. 2017, "Light curves of the neutron star merger GW170817/SSS17a: Implications for r-process nucleosynthesis", Science: http://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2017/10/16/science.aaq0049.full ► B. J. Shappee et al. 2017, "Early spectra of the gravitational wave source GW170817: Evolution of a neutron star merger", Science: http://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2017/10/13/science.aaq0186.full ► M. M. Kasliwal et al. 2017, "Illuminating gravitational waves: A concordant picture of photons from a neutron star merger", Science: http://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2017/10/13/science.aap9455.full ► G. Hallinan et al. 2017, "A radio counterpart to a neutron star merger", Science: http://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2017/10/13/science.aap9855.full ► P. A. Evans et al. 2017, "Swift and NuSTAR observations of GW170817: Detection of a blue kilonova", Science: http://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2017/10/13/science.aap9580.full ► J. S. Bloom and S. Sigurdsson 2017, "A cosmic multimessenger gold rush", Science: http://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2017/10/13/science.aaq0321.full ► C. D. Kilpatrick et al. 2017, "Electromagnetic evidence that SSS17a is the result of a binary neutron star merger", Science: http://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2017/10/13/science.aaq0073.full ► D. A. Coulter et al. 2017, "Swope Supernova Survey 2017a (SSS17a), the optical counterpart to a gravitational wave source", Science: http://science.sciencemag.org/content/early/2017/10/13/science.aap9811.full ► Thumbnail image from Ana Kova for Quanta Magazine (see https://www.quantamagazine.org/neutron-star-collision-shakes-space-time-and-lights-up-the-sky-20171016/ and http://anakova.com) ► Columbia University Department of Astronomy: http://www.astro.columbia.edu ► Cool Worlds Lab website: http://coolworlds.astro.columbia.edu ► Background music is "MORTIS - COSMOS 1M1" from "COSMOS - Volume 3", a GRV MegaMix edited by George Mortis (YouTube: Mortifer V.); and "Crimson Embrace [GRV Extended Mix]" by Jaye Arcuve (https://soundcloud.com/jaye-arcuve). ► Outro music is a piano cover of "Neutron Star Collision (Love Is Forever)" by Muse, made by djecover (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mhWc1v-DqKw) ► Thanks to Nick Stone for fact checking! ::Playlists For Channel:: Latest Cool Worlds Videos ► http://bit.ly/NewCoolWorlds Cool Worlds Research ► http://bit.ly/CoolWorldsResearch Guest Videos ► http://bit.ly/CoolWorldsGuests Q&A Videos ► http://bit.ly/CoolWorldsQA Tabby's Star ► http://bit.ly/TabbysStar Science of TV/Film ► http://bit.ly/ScienceMovies ::Follow us:: SUBSCRIBE to the channel http://bit.ly/CoolWorldsSubscribe Cool Worlds Lab http://coolworlds.astro.columbia.edu Twitter https://twitter.com/david_kipping Instagram https://www.instagram.com/cool.worlds THANKS FOR WATCHING!!

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LIGO may have just detected gravitational waves from the collision of two Neutron Stars. And go to http://curiositystream.com/spacetime for two months of free Curiosity Stream. Use the promo code "spacetime" during the sign-up process. You can further support us on Patreon at https://www.patreon.com/pbsspacetime Get your own Space Time t­shirt at http://bit.ly/1QlzoBi Tweet at us! @pbsspacetime Facebook: facebook.com/pbsspacetime Email us! pbsspacetime [at] gmail [dot] com Comment on Reddit: http://www.reddit.com/r/pbsspacetime Help translate our videos! https://www.youtube.com/timedtext_cs_... Previous Episode: https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=1&v=S4aqGI1mSqo Links to the videos mentioned: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gw-i_VKd6Wo https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Tstyqz2g7o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJ2RNBAFLj0 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xx4562gesw0&t=71 Last year LIGO announced the detection of gravitational waves from the merger of two black holes. The science world went a little crazy. Only a few weeks ago a new rumour emerged: that LIGO had, for the first time, spotted gravitational waves from the collision of a pair of neutron stars. If it’s true, some long-standing astrophysical mysteries are about to be unlocked. Written and Hosted by Matt O’Dowd Produced by Rusty Ward Graphics by Kurt Ross Assistant Editing and Sound Design by Mike Petrow Made by Kornhaber Brown (www.kornhaberbrown.com) Special thanks to our Patreon Big Bang, Quasar and Hypernova Supporters: Big Bang CoolAsCats David Nicklas Richard Senegor Quasar Tambe Barsbay Max Levine Mayank M. Mehrota Mars Yentur Mark Rosenthal Dean Fuqua Hypernova Edmund Fokschaner Max Levine Eugene Lawson Chuck Zegar Jordan Young Ratfeast John Hofmann Joseph Salomone Martha Hunt Craig Peterson Barry Hatfield Matthew O’Connor Thanks to our Patreon Gamma Ray Burst Supporters: Scott Gossett Mark Dykstra Peter Durocher Michael Kers Chris Hicks Mark Vasile Patrick Murray Sultan Alkhulaifi Alex Seto Jared Moore Michal-Peanut Karmi Bernardo Higuera Erik Stein Daniel Lyons Kevin Warne JJ Bagnell J Rejc Amy Jie Avi Goldfinger John Pettit Shannan Catalano Florian Stinglmayr Yubo Du Benoit Pagé-Guitard Nathan Leniz Jessica Fraley Loro Lukic Brandon Labonte David Crane Greg Weiss

When a dying star is too massive to leave behind a white dwarf and not massive enough to leave behind a black hole, you get a neutron star (sometimes a pulsar). It's a very compact clump of neutrons surrounded by a very strong magnetic field. These things are crazy!! ________________________________ VIDEO ANNOTATIONS/CARDS What Are White Dwarf Stars? https://youtu.be/QhONoxabmdo Nuclear Fusion Explained: https://youtu.be/LKUPAk5049M Periodic Table Explained: https://youtu.be/r40g-lurgHI What Are Gravitational Waves? https://youtu.be/HmiPDvz0WVU ________________________________ RELATED YOUTUBE VIDEOS Kurz Gesagt on Neutron Stars: https://youtu.be/ZW3aV7U-aik Crash Course on Neutron Stars: https://youtu.be/RrMvUL8HFlM Socratica on Neutron Stars: https://youtu.be/6-fbpMwK-eA ________________________________ HUGE THANK YOU TO THESE PATRONS ** Clint Cloys, Rick Finn, Nikko Lai, Evgeny, Preston From, Christian McCracken ** ________________________________ SUPPORT THE SCIENCE ASYLUM Patreon: http://www.patreon.com/ScienceAsylum Advanced Theoretical Physics (eBook): https://gumroad.com/l/ubSc Merchandise: http://shop.spreadshirt.com/scienceasylum/ ________________________________ OTHER SOURCES https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0201117 https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/objects/neutron_stars1.html http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/cosmos/P/Photodisintegration https://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/ ________________________________ LINKS TO COMMENTS Cam Brown - Da-Warv: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QhONoxabmdo&lc=z234j1xwspavxphuaacdp435t4o10knm0mbl4viajipw03c010c ________________________________ IMAGE CREDITS LIGO: https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/image/ligo20150731c

NASA's Space to Ground is your weekly update on what's happening aboard the International Space Station. Got a question or comment? Use #spacetoground to talk to us. ________________________________________ FOLLOW THE SPACE STATION! Twitter: https://twitter.com/Space_Station Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/ISS Instagram: https://instagram.com/iss/

Though we know neutron stars are small and extremely dense, there are still many aspects of these remnants of explosive deaths of other stars that we have yet tounderstand. NICER, a facility to be mounted on the outside of the International Space Station, seeks to find the answers to some of the questions still being asked about neutron stars. By capturing the arrival time and energy of the x-ray photons produced by pulsars emitted by neutron stars, NICER seeks answer decades-old questions about extreme forms of matter and energy. Data from NICER will also be used in Sextant, an on-board demonstration of pulsar-based navigation. For more information: https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/1966.html https://www.nasa.gov/iss-science Research Overview on nasa.gov http://www.twitter.com/ISS_Research on Twitter. HD download link: https://archive.org/details/Unlocking_Secrets_of_Neutron_Stars_with_NICER

#HowTheUniverseWorks A neutron star is one of the most dangerous objects in the universe. Neutron stars are the densest things besides black holes. A stone sized piece of this star would weigh 100 million metric tons. Full Episodes Streaming FREE on Science GO: https://www.sciencechannelgo.com/how-the-universe-works/ Subscribe to Science Channel: http://bit.ly/SubscribeScience Check out SCI2 for infinitely awesome science videos. Every day. http://bit.ly/SCI2YT Join Us on Facebook: http://www.facebook.com/ScienceChannel Follow Us on Twitter: http://www.twitter.com/sciencechannel

Victoria Kaspi (McGill University) explains ___ during her 2016 public lectures at Perimeter Institute, "The Cosmic Gift of Neutron Stars." Watch the full talk: https://youtu.be/6UG9hoeLcHo Watch more Perimeter public lectures: https://insidetheperimeter.ca/discover/public-lectures/

Victoria Kaspi (McGill University) explains ___ during her 2016 public lectures at Perimeter Institute, "The Cosmic Gift of Neutron Stars." Watch the full talk: https://youtu.be/6UG9hoeLcHo Watch more Perimeter public lectures: https://insidetheperimeter.ca/discover/public-lectures/

Victoria Kaspi (McGill University) plays "music from the heavens" during her 2016 public lectures at Perimeter Institute, "The Cosmic Gift of Neutron Stars." Watch the full talk: https://youtu.be/6UG9hoeLcHo Watch more Perimeter public lectures: https://insidetheperimeter.ca/discover/public-lectures/

Victoria Kaspi (McGill University) explains the effort to detect gravitational waves from neutron stars during her 2016 public lectures at Perimeter Institute, "The Cosmic Gift of Neutron Stars." Watch the full talk: https://youtu.be/6UG9hoeLcHo Watch more Perimeter public lectures: https://insidetheperimeter.ca/discover/public-lectures/

Victoria Kaspi (McGill University) explains the lifespan of neutron stars during her 2016 public lectures at Perimeter Institute, "The Cosmic Gift of Neutron Stars." Watch the full talk: https://youtu.be/6UG9hoeLcHo Watch more Perimeter public lectures: https://insidetheperimeter.ca/discover/public-lectures/

NASA has selected a science mission that will allow astronomers to explore, for the first time, the hidden details of some of the most extreme and exotic astronomical objects, such as stellar and supermassive black holes, neutron stars and pulsars. Objects such as black holes can heat surrounding gases to more than a million degrees. The high-energy X-ray radiation from this gas can be polarized – vibrating in a particular direction. The Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE) mission will fly three space telescopes with cameras capable of measuring the polarization of these cosmic X-rays, allowing scientists to answer fundamental questions about these turbulent and extreme environments where gravitational, electric and magnetic fields are at their limits.

A neutron star is the collapsed core of a large star. Neutron stars are the smallest and densest stars known to exist. With a radius on the order of 10 km, they can, however, have a mass of about twice that of the Sun. Credit: NASA Follow Us: Facebook: https://goo.gl/QapZAe Twitter: https://goo.gl/RoQSmJ

This episode is an in-depth look at stars, from the common kinds and basic terminology to exotic stars, some which are entirely hypothetical. We'll look at Stars bigger than solar systems or tinier than a pinhead, and some stars that no longer exist or cannot exist till long after all other stars have died. Visit our Website: http://www.isaacarthur.net Join the Facebook Group: https://www.facebook.com/groups/1583992725237264/ Support the Channel on Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/IsaacArthur Visit the sub-reddit: https://www.reddit.com/r/IsaacArthur/ Listen or Download the audio of this episode from Soundcloud: https://soundcloud.com/isaac-arthur-148927746/the-stellar-compendium Cover Art by Jakub Grygier: https://www.artstation.com/artist/jakub_grygier

In this questions show, we wonder when we’ll finally merge our brains with computers, is the Death Star a Dyson Sphere? And whether we could live in lava tubes. Twitch: https://www.twitch.tv/fcain Support us at: http://www.patreon.com/universetoday More stories at: http://www.universetoday.com/ Follow us on Twitter: @universetoday Follow us on Tumblr: http://universetoday.tumblr.com/ Like us on Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/universetoday Google+ - https://plus.google.com/+universetoday/ Instagram - http://instagram.com/universetoday

Welcome to Top10Archive! You thought that just because we’d made our rounds throughout our galaxy that we were done with our intergalactic travel? Psh. There’s so much more in that deep vast blackness that will keep us busy for some time to come – such as these 10 incredibly bizarre and unusual objects that have either been found in or have come from space! Support us by shopping on Amazon! http://tinyurl.com/njwyzzn 10. Rogue Planets 9. Gliese 581g 8. Dark Matter 7. Magnetars 6. Black Hole 5. Black Widow Pulsar 4. Pillars of Creation 3. Sagittarius B2 2. Galactic Cannibalism 1. Brightness Fluctuations in KIC 8462852 Voice Over Talent: https://www.youtube.com/user/thought2/

Use the URL: http://www.squarespace.com/nutshell for 10% with a new website and support this channel. Also make your life easier. Thanks a lot to Squarespace for supporting the show! There are cosmic snipers firing at random into the unvierse. What are they and what happens if they hit us? Support us on Patreon so we can make more stuff (and get cool stuff in return): https://www.patreon.com/Kurzgesagt?ty=h Kurzgesagt merch here: http://bit.ly/1P1hQIH Get the music of the video here: soundcloud: http://bit.ly/2aPCCjH bandcamp: http://bit.ly/2amauGP http://www.epic-mountain.com THANKS A LOT TO OUR LOVELY PATRONS FOR SUPPORTING US: John Wendeborn, Mia Butorac, Wesley Byrd, Richard Judd, Max Bowers, Mitchell Greenaway, Albinomaur, Harry, Erik, Onnen, Connor, Woodard, BurmansHealthShop, Output Coupler, William Hector, Wes, Quantum Cat, Kyle Fox, Leo Caillard, Alex Tudorica, Nicholas Peterson, Haden Wasserbaech, Robert Martin, Brian David Henderson, Justin Rimando, JMW, MartinHanzlík, Veritasium, Oli Boersma, Fredrik Sundqvist, Brayden Hull, Dwight VanTuyl, Karl Ostmo, Annemarie Landman, Alfonso Cornejo, James Cochran, Paul Craig, Syed Rafay Mahmood, Justin Ritchie, Victor Hilario, David Humphreys, Brian, Nicholas Bethencourt, Nate Guest, Razvan Caliman, Steven Arcangeli, Ryan Poole, Samantha Adikari, Skid Vis, Muhammad Ragab, Kasper Eriksen, Connor Findlay, Matt Tavani, Thomas Leese, Daniel Podobinski, Corey Hinds, Milosz, Jeroen Klapwijk, Nicole Kalagayan, Dan Longauer, Dennis, Lorenzo89er, Charles Shuller, Dana Levinthal, Adam Thompson-Sharpe, shahad sadeq, Jenny Ng, Leo Herzog, Charles Macdonald, Jill Hoffman, Bluesparks, ethnicolor, Jacob Venable, Andrei-Gabriel, Michal Ciechomski, Wisecrack, Brett Smithson Death From Space — Gamma-Ray Bursts Explained Help us caption & translate this video! http://www.youtube.com/timedtext_cs_panel?c=UCsXVk37bltHxD1rDPwtNM8Q&tab=2

Astronomers have theorized there could be an intermediate stage between neutron stars and black holes called quark stars. Are they out there? Support us at: http://www.patreon.com/universetoday More stories at: http://www.universetoday.com/ Follow us on Twitter: @universetoday Follow us on Tumblr: http://universetoday.tumblr.com/ Like us on Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/universetoday Google+ - https://plus.google.com/+universetoday/ Instagram - http://instagram.com/universetoday Team: Fraser Cain - @fcain Jason Harmer - @jasoncharmer Chad Weber - [email protected] Created by: Fraser Cain and Jason Harmer Edited by: Chad Weber Music: Left Spine Down - “X-Ray” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4tcoZNrSveE We’ve covered the full range of exotic star-type objects in the Universe. Like Pokemon Go, we’ve collected them all. Okay fine, I’m still looking for a Tauros, and so I’ll continue to wander the streets, like a zombie staring at his phone. Now, according to my attorney, I’ve fulfilled the requirements for shamelessly jumping on a viral bandwagon by mentioning Pokemon Go and loosely connecting it to whatever completely unrelated topic I was working on. Any further Pokemon Go references would just be shameless attempts to coopt traffic to my channel, and I’m better than that. It was pretty convenient, though, and it was easy enough to edit out the references to Quark on Deep Space 9 and replace them with Pokemon Go. Of course, there is a new Star Trek movie out, so maybe I miscalculated. Anyway, now that we got that out of the way. Back to rare and exotic stellar objects. There are the white dwarfs, the remnants of stars like our Sun which have passed through the main sequence phase, and now they’re cooling down. There are the neutron stars and pulsars formed in a moment when stars much more massive than our Sun die in a supernova explosion. Their gravity and density is so great that all the protons and electrons from all the atoms are mashed together. A single teaspoon of neutron star weighs 10 million tons. And there are the black holes. These form from even more massive supernova explosions, and the gravity and density is so strong they overcome the forces holding atoms themselves together. White dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes. These were all theorized by physicists, and have all been discovered by observational astronomers. We know they’re out there. Is that it? Is that all the exotic forms that stars can take? That we know of, yes, however, there are a few even more exotic objects which are still just theoretical. These are the quark stars. But what are they? Let’s go back to the concept of a neutron star. According to the theories, neutron stars have such intense gravity they crush protons and electrons together into neutrons. The whole star is made of neutrons, inside and out. If you add more mass to the neutron star, you cross this line where it’s too much mass to hold even the neutrons together, and the whole thing collapses into a black hole. A star like our Sun has layers. The outer convective zone, then the radiative zone, and then the core down in the center, where all the fusion takes place. Could a neutron star have layers? What’s at the core of the neutron star, compared to the surface? The idea is that a quark star is an intermediate stage in between neutron stars and black holes. It has too much mass at its core for the neutrons to hold their atomness. But not enough to fully collapse into a black hole. In these objects, the underlying quarks that form the neutrons are further compressed. “Up” and “down” quarks are squeezed together into “strange” quarks. Since it’s made up of “strange” quarks, physicists call this “strange matter”. Neutron stars are plenty strange, so don’t give it any additional emotional weight just because it’s called strange matter. If they happened to merge into “charm” quarks, then it would be called “charm matter”, and I’d be making Alyssa Milano references. And like I said, these are still theoretical, but there is some evidence that they might be out there. Astronomers have discovered a class of supernova that give off about 100 times the energy of a regular supernova explosion. Although they could just be mega supernovae, there’s another intriguing possibility. They might be heavy, unstable neutron stars that exploded a second time, perhaps feeding from a binary companion star. As they hit some limit, they converting from a regular neutron star to one made of strange quarks. But if quark stars are real, they’re very small. While a regular neutron star is 25 km across, a quark star would only be 16 km across, and this is right at the edge of becoming a black hole. If quark stars do exist, they probably don’t last long. It’s an intermediate step between a neutron star, and the final black hole configuration. A last gasp of a star as its event horizon forms.

Delving into the depths of the universe, Dr. Arnau Rios Huguet shows us that we should not be afraid of the unknown, but embrace it and marvel in the pleasure of the unknown. By walking us through recent developments in physics, Arnau shows us the wonders of the universe and highlights that it is anything but ordinary Dr. Arnau Rios Huguet is a STFC Advanced Fellow at the Nuclear Theory Group of the University of Surrey. One of his major research goals is to obtain a time-dependent Green's functions approach for nuclear reactions, including the effect of beyond mean-field correlations. In his research, he has studied nuclear systems, such as nuclear or neutron matter, which have common properties with atomic nuclei. This talk was given at a TEDx event using the TED conference format but independently organized by a local community. Learn more at http://ted.com/tedx

Pulsars are an exotic astronomical object left over from exploding stars. Mysterious as they may be, science has helped us to reveal several facts about these cosmological rogues.

Our video walks you through the formation of neutron stars and their various subtypes and consequences. Neutron stars form when massive stars-- stars with a mass between 8 times that of our sun and 20 times that of our sun-- collapses. The gravitation force increases so much that protons and electrons form neutrons, leaving a super dense, super hot care: a neutron star. Pulsars, also known as pulsating radio stars, are neutron stars that rotate, are highly magnetized, and emit beams of electromagnetic radiation. Pulsars move at incredibly fast speeds and can only result from high mass stars. When neutron stars die, they create black holes. Material around the supermassive black hole forms an incredibly accretion disk that emits an enormous amount of radiation. This creates a magnetic environment that produces twin jets of material that courses into space for millions of lightyears: also known as quasars. Finally, magnetars are special pulsars that have a stronger magnetic field, rotate more slowly, and release much higher energy gamma radiation bursts than normal pulsars. The incredibly strong magnetic field can create massive destruction to objects near the magnetar and more far reaching consequences as well. You should probably be more worried about your finals than the effects of a magnetar, but if one came close, it might be a good idea to tell your orthodontist.

Professor Dong Lai Department of Astronomy Cornell University Extreme Physics and Astrophysics of Neutrons Stars Neutron stars are associated with some of the most exotic phenomena and environments in the universe. They have been observed in all electromagnetic wave bands, from radio to gamma rays, and are likely to be detected in gravitational waves in the next few years. Their strong gravities, high densities and magnetic fields provide a unique avenue for exploring physics under extreme conditions. In this talk, I will highlight recent progress and discuss future prospects in the astrophysics of neutron stars.

9 interesting facts about Neutron Stars. The spirit of a dead star. If you are interested in the wonders of the Universe, as planets, stars, black holes, theories, our solar system... You should watch this short documentary. In this case, you will enjoy learning the best curiosities about Neutron Stars. Their density, their magnetic field, their diameter, their power... Please, if you liked the video, drop a like and subscribe for more interesting videos about the universe, prehistoric animals and the deep sea. Channel: https://www.youtube.com/user/josepecinausina And if you like cinema... Second Channel: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCCvsbroLD7oAHjSYUYZ1W8g Also, If you have any particular interest, something you would like to learn about, please comment it and I will make a great new video about it. And of couse, IT IS ABSOLUTELY FREE. Thanks, hope you like it. Music: "Evil March", "Hero Down" Kevin MacLeod (incompetech.com) Licensed under Creative Commons: By Attribution 3.0 http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

SEJL- Ever wonder what an atom with no protons would look like? Well, look no further than a neutron star, an unstoppable gravitational force and the densest object short of a black hole. (Sorry for having to reupload this video, I had to correct some misinformation. Thanks to those who caught my error :)) Hosted and drawn as always by Liam Watson! Patreon Patrons: Martin Fosse Want your name here? https://www.patreon.com/SEJL Got a question you want answered? Ask it in the comments! We'll do our best to answer it! Olde Timey Kevin MacLeod (incompetech.com) Licensed under Creative Commons: By Attribution 3.0 License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/b...

In her Feb. 3 talk, Dr. Victoria Kaspi of McGill University, explored neutron stars -- mysterious celestial objects can shed light on some of the most vexing questions in the universe. More info on Perimeter Public Lectures: http://www.perimeterinstitute.ca/node/92581

General Relativity at 100: Institute for Advanced Study and Princeton University Celebrate the Enduring Reach, Power and Mysteries of Einstein’s Theory Victoria Kaspi - November 5, 2015 https://www.ias.edu/gr100 Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity, a pillar of modern physics formulated 100 years ago, will be celebrated by the Institute for Advanced Study and Princeton University in a two-day conference, General Relativity at 100. The conference, which will feature ten colloquium-style talks by international experts on diverse aspects of general relativity and its fascinating history—from cosmology to quantum gravity, from black holes to neutron stars—will take place in Wolfensohn Hall on the Institute’s campus on November 5–6. The conference will also celebrate the seminal role of Princeton physicists, particularly John Wheeler and Bob Dicke and their students, in advancing an examination of general relativity. “The general theory of relativity is based on profound and elegant principles that connect the physics of motion and mass to the geometry of space and time,” stated Robbert Dijkgraaf, Director of the Institute and Leon Levy Professor. “With Einstein’s equations, even the universe itself became an object of study. Only now, after a century of calculations and observations, the full power of this theory has become visible, from black holes and gravitational lenses to the practical use of GPS devices.” Einstein was one of the Institute’s first Faculty members, serving from 1933 until his death in 1955, and played a significant part in its early development. Einstein came to the United States to take up his appointment at the invitation of Abraham Flexner, the Institute’s Founding Director. Today, theorists at the Institute continue to interpret and test Einstein’s theory of general relativity, about which questions persist: What is the physics of black holes? Do space and time emerge from a more fundamental description? Why is the universe accelerating? How can general relativity be reconciled with quantum mechanics? What are the origins and the long-term fate of the universe? The celebration will open on November 4 with a special performance of Light Falls: Space, Time, and an Obsession of Einstein, a dramatic portrayal of Einstein’s discovery of the general theory of relativity, at Princeton University’s Richardson Auditorium. Light Falls, written by Brian Greene, Member (1992-93) in the Institute’s School of Natural Sciences and Professor of Theoretical Physics at Columbia University, composed by Jeff Beal (“House of Cards”), designed by 59 Productions (“An American in Paris”) and directed by Scott Faris (“Walking with Dinosaurs”), is an original work weaving together dramatic portrayals, state-of-the-art animation and innovative projection techniques to trace Einstein’s electrifying journey toward one of the most beautiful ideas ever conceived. The conference will close on November 6 with a recital for the Institute campus community by world-acclaimed violinist Joshua Bell and a screening of the new documentary Einstein’s Light by Nickolas Barris, Director’s Visitor (2013) at the Institute and founder of Imaginary Films. Einstein’s Light explores how scientific imagination and innovation advance knowledge, with Einstein and Dutch Nobel Laureate Hendrik Lorentz as models. The film examines Einstein’s discoveries as well as modern examples of scientific imagination and innovation, highlighting institutions such as the Institute and others around the world. Bruce Adolphe’s score reflects the power of music as a catalyst for Einstein’s scientific creativity and his deep connection to the music of Mozart and Bach. Joshua Bell’s performance at the Institute will mark the world premiere of the score set to the final visualization from the film. Major support for the General Relativity at 100 conference and related events has been provided by Eric and Wendy Schmidt. More videos on http://video.ias.edu

In the aftermath of a 8 – 20 solar mass star’s demise we find a weird little object known as a neutron star. Neutrons stars are incredibly dense, spin rapidly, and have very strong magnetic fields. Some of them we see as pulsars, flashing in brightness as they spin. Neutrons stars with the strongest magnetic fields are called magnetars, and are capable of colossal bursts of energy that can be detected over vast distances. Crash Course Astronomy Poster: http://store.dftba.com/products/crashcourse-astronomy-poster -- Table of Contents A Star Can Collapse to Form a Neutron Star 0:59 Neutron Star Characteristics 2:24 Pulsars 5:56 Magnetars 8:15 -- PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios Follow Phil on Twitter: https://twitter.com/badastronomer Want to find Crash Course elsewhere on the internet? Facebook - http://www.facebook.com/YouTubeCrashCourse Twitter - http://www.twitter.com/TheCrashCourse Tumblr - http://thecrashcourse.tumblr.com Support CrashCourse on Patreon: http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse -- PHOTOS/VIDEOS Star Burst https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/details.cgi?aid=11447 [credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center] X-ray Images of G292.0+1.8 http://chandra.harvard.edu/resources/animations/snr.html/?page=8 [credit: X-ray: NASA/CXC/Penn State/S.Park et al.; Optical: Pal.Obs. DSS] Neutron star cross section https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Neutron_star_cross_section.jpg [credit: NASA] Fermi Spots 'Superflares' in the Crab Nebula https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qDhdwgK218E [credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center] What is a pulsar? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gjLk_72V9Bw [credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center] Jocelyn Bell http://blog.sciencemuseum.org.uk/insight/2013/03/20/1960-discovery-of-pulsars/ [credit: National Media Museum / Science & Society Picture Library] Beacons of X-ray Light https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6p2OGc6a_TQ [credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech] Chandra Time-Lapse Movie http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2002/0052/animations.html [credit: NASA/CXC/ASU/J.Hester et al.] NASA's Fermi Satellite Finds Hints of Starquakes in Magnetar 'Storm' http://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/nasas-fermi-satellite-finds-hints-of-starquakes-in-magnetar-storm [credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center/S. Wiessinger] NASA's Swift Reveals New Phenomenon in a Neutron Star http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/swift/bursts/new-phenom.html#.Vcp-6flVhBe [credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center] Cosmic Explosion Second Only to the Sun in Brightness https://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/details.cgi?aid=20077 [credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Conceptual Image Lab]

A short clip from Episode 13, talking about just how weird and awesome neutron stars are. Keep those questions coming to #AskASpaceman, and subscribe to the podcast here: http://goo.gl/C48z3b or visit www.askaspaceman.com!

Discover the life of a neutron star, including how it's born after a supernova explosion and how its extreme pressure causes protons and electrons to combine into neutrons. Discover also how pulsars are rotating neutron stars that will eventually slow down to become regular neutron stars.

Introduction by Kip Thorne. Learn more about the Inaugural Celebration and Symposium of the Walter Burke Institute for Theoretical Physics: https://burkeinstitute.caltech.edu/workshops/Inaugural_Symposium Produced in association with Caltech Academic Media Technologies. ©2015 California Institute of Technology

Doppler Effect - Sound - EM Radiation - Binary Stars - Neutron Stars - Black Holes - Big Bang Cosmology Assignments Lecture 15 and 16: http://freepdfhosting.com/b44fe0e3c0.pdf Solutions Lecture 15 and 16: http://freepdfhosting.com/39414e0841.pdf

Doppler Effect - Binary Stars - Neutron Stars and Black Holes Lecture Notes, Effects of Inclination of Binary Systems: http://freepdfhosting.com/7d9d78ffe1.pdf Assignments Lecture 21, 22, 23 and 24: http://freepdfhosting.com/2e96daf94f.pdf Solutions Lecture 21, 22, 23 and 24: http://freepdfhosting.com/86109d309b.pdf

Rotating Rigid Bodies - Moment of Inertia - Parallel Axis and Perpendicular Axis Theorem - Rotational Kinetic Energy - Fly Wheels - Neutron Stars - Pulsars Lecture Notes, Flywheel Technology: http://freepdfhosting.com/5e0ffb03a1.pdf Assignments Lecture 19 and 20: http://freepdfhosting.com/4a64566212.pdf Solutions Lecture 19 and 20: http://freepdfhosting.com/972f51a6e8.pdf

Title: Luminous neutron stars Speaker: Andrei Beloborodov (Columbia U.) Date: 2015-01-15

Stars are not eternal and unchanging - they are born, live their lives, and then die. The way a star dies depends on its mass. A low mass star ends as a white dwarf. A high mass star becomes a black hole. But in between, a star becomes a neutron star. In this video we talk about which stars become neutron stars, and the physics behind their formation. ⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫ We highly recommend the Astronomy textbook “Universe” by Roger Freedman et al: Universe 9th Edition http://amzn.to/2so6Ums Universe 10th Edition http://amzn.to/2tfBjUe Shop Amazon Used Textbooks - Save up to 90% http://amzn.to/2pllk4B ⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫ Be sure to subscribe so you don't miss videos from Socratica! http://bit.ly/1ixuu9W And please share with all your friends! That helps us grow. 🙂 ⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫ If you'd like to support more great educational videos from Socratica, please consider becoming our Patron on Patreon! https://www.patreon.com/socratica ⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫⧫ Hosted by Liliana de Castro Written by Michael Harrison Produced by Kimberly Hatch Harrison

EXTRAORDINARY VIDEOS!!! http://extra-ordinaryvids.blogspot.com/

Doppler Effect, Binary Stars, Neutron Stars and Black Holes. Doppler shift is introduced with sound waves, then extended to electromagnetic waves (radiation). The Doppler shift of stellar spectral lines and/or pulsar frequencies provides a measure of the line-of-sight (so-called radial) velocity of the source relative to the observer. Combined with Newton's law of universal gravitation, this can lead to the orbital parameters and the mass of both stars in a binary star system. This lecture is part of 8.01 Physics I: Classical Mechanics, as taught in Fall 1999 by Dr. Walter Lewin at MIT. This video was formerly hosted on the YouTube channel MIT OpenCourseWare. This version was downloaded from the Internet Archive, at https://archive.org/details/MIT8.01F99/. Attribution: MIT OpenCourseWare License: Creative Commons BY-NC-SA 3.0 US To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/. More information at http://ocw.mit.edu/terms/. This YouTube channel is independently operated. It is neither affiliated with nor endorsed by MIT, MIT OpenCourseWare, the Internet Archive, or Dr. Lewin.